In some species, males and females form lifelong pair bonds. Another suggested benefit is the possibility of "fortress defense", where soldier castes threaten or attack intruders, thus protecting related individuals inside the territory.

Artificial light at night (ALAN) is one form of human-induced rapid environmental changes (HIREC) and is strongly interfering with natural dark–light cycles. BMC Ecology Males’ reproductive successes are often limited by access to mates, whereas females’ reproductive successes are more often limited by access to resources. Sensory bias has been demonstrated in guppies, freshwater fish from Trinidad and Tobago. When a population exhibits a number of interacting social behaviors such as this, it can evolve a stable pattern of behaviors known as an evolutionarily stable strategy (or ESS). However, some males attempt to force copulation by grabbing females with a specialized abdominal organ without offering a gift. In direct competition, the males are directly focused on the females. [86] Some birds, such as the phalaropes, have reversed sex roles where the female is larger and more brightly colored, and compete for males to incubate their clutches. Natural red fluorescence is particularly conspicuous in the eyes of some small, benthic, predatory fishes. Monogamy may also arise from limited opportunities for polygamy, due to strong competition among males for mates, females suffering from loss of male help, and female-female aggression. and Cézilly, F. (2008). 2020 [18] Orange fruits are a rare treat that fall into streams where the guppies live. In contrast, when resource availability is high, there may be so many intruders that the defender would have no time to make use of the resources made available by defense. The first rule is ‘treat anyone in my home as kin.’ This rule is readily seen in the reed warbler, a bird species that only focuses on chicks in their own nest. When smaller males got larger and their calls more competitive, then they started calling and competing directly for mates. Authors: Ruth García-Jiménez, Juan M. Pérez-García and Antoni Margalida, Citation: [3] When resources are at low density, the gains from excluding others may not be sufficient to pay for the cost of territorial defense. These conflicts can be broken down into three general types: sexual (male-female) conflict, parent-offspring conflict, and sibling conflict. [9]:371–375, This monogamous mating system has been observed in insects such as termites, ants, bees and wasps. BMC Ecology Another resolution for parent-offspring conflict is that parental provisioning and offspring demand have actually coevolved, so that there is no obvious underlying conflict. [120], Although eusociality has been shown to offer many benefits to the colony, there is also potential for conflict.



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